II Negerhollands texts

1 The first texts: letters

In the first half of the 18th century, around 150 letters were written in Negerhollands. Only one was addressed to the slaves (see 1.1.1), while all of the others were written by slaves who were taught to read and write by the Moravian Brethren. In this section we only present a small selection; all known slave letters will be published in Stein & Beck (in preparation).

Every letter presented here is accompanied by a separate introduction containing information about the letter, like the exact provenance in the Archive of the Moravian Brethren in Herrnhut (Germany), its date, its author and writer, and its addressee.

1.1 Three letters from the Büdingische Sammlung (1742)

1.1.1 Des Hrn. Grafen Zinzendorff Abschied-Schreiben an die Negers in St. Thomas, in Cariolischer Sprache.

The first letter consciously and intentionally written in Negerhollands is not by a slave but by Zinzendorf. On leaving the Virgin Islands, he addressed a farewell letter to the slave community on 15 February 1739. This letter was printed in the Büdingische Sammlung in 1742 and thereby became the first printed Negerhollands text of some length. The printed version contains some transcription errors, which have been corrected here after the manuscript text in the Herrnhut Archive. Apart from typical creole structures, Zinzendorf's letter also contains many Dutch influences and ‘semantic incongruences’ (falsche Freunde). Its significance lies in the fact that, among

other things, he demonstrated to the slaves the possibility of writing in their own language. Zinzendorf may not have written the text entirely by himself. Probably he was assisted by one of the settlers who thought well of the Herrnhut missionaries, Carstens. Of interest is the justification of the existence of slavery and the enslaving of Black people, which Zinzendorf gives in the last part of the letter. For an honest evaluation of his arguments one has to take into account that the letter was also directed to the white slave owners, whose permission Zinzendorf needed for the mission among the slaves.

The printing errors are visibly corrected here, according to the original1 manuscript, by Stein and van Rossem. Where a manuscript form differed from the printed form, the manuscript form is added between accolades.

VII.

Des Hrn. Grafen von Zinzendorff

Abschied=Schreiben an die Negers in St. Thomas, in Cariolischer Sprache.2

Translation

From the Lord Count von Zinzendorf, a farewell letter to the negroes in St Thomas, in the creole language.

My dear-loved friends

I have come this long way to see you and I am happy to see a beginning that I wished six years ago, the time I sent the first of my brothers to teach you. Thanked be our Lord God, who blessed your master Martinus, my dear brother, and helped him! It will give a great happiness to the king of Denmark when he hears that in all his places heathens get to know his Majesty's God, the only and true God. But oh how great will be the happiness for our Lord Jesus, the Saviour of all the poor black souls with his own blood, so that He sees everything in advance, and knows all among you who will stay faithful, and will share in his salvation? I part from you with as much shaking, as happiness: the reason of my happiness is this: The cross of our Lord Jesus is now known on already fifty one plantations; if there would be just one on every one who remains faithful, he would be a light for all his master negroes and his work would be a great great blessing for his master. What does the master gain now, who has over fifty, yes over one hundred (slaves), who go to Martinus school to learn, to know God, just like Company-plantation, Mr. Jan de Windt, Mr. Adriaan Beverhout, and others. God bless all with blessing from above and with blessing from below, who well his grace, that the soul of you negroes from the slavery of the devil is brought to Christ's freedom. The reason for that I shake for you is this: The devil and the world will watch you, when you do not walk faithfully now. All that hear the gospel and love it and most who are baptised by Martinus in the name of God Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and who have been made to teach the other ones. So the world will mock you and the devil will complain about you to God and the Lord. First I was surprised that Martyn was so sharp that he chased the negroes from the doctrine, when he heard that they again took up something of the old ways; but I see, he was right, because to keep the hypocrite off from Jesus, to prevent them from their false thoughts, to be seen by others, and to have it easier in the world, or not to work or to become free, or what I can say more. For that it is also good that Martinus does not teach you in the time, that you must work; Because when it is your real wish to become blessed Jesus can bless the little time that you have for yourself to learn. A heathen should not have another reason to convert himself, than that he believes that Jesus God's son has died to pay for mankind's sin, and that he now truly lives so that man may live with him; A heathen cannot do by nature as much good, as any a human who has learned from childhood to do good, and does not get permission to do evil. Because a heathen is from childhood on used to do evil, and has not learned any better. But when a heathen gets the mercy of the Lord Jesus, that his sin is forgiven, and he is washed with Jesus' blood; so he receives the strength to leave all evil, and to do good and so he hates sin so much, as he had loved it before. Then he is one of Christ's people, so as your Master Martinus will teach you furthermore. Now I just wish, that I am assured of you, then I will go quietly from you, and think of you with great happiness for the Lord.

First that you think always of the Lord Jesus, that you pray to him always, for him to give you the right belief, that the Lord may stand always for your soul, as if you are crazy about Him, the way he died for you on the cross.

Second: that you deal with Martinus and the others that teach you, with a sincere heart, and do not show yourself better than you are.

Third: when you are driven away from the doctrine, when you have done evil that you may have a sincere repentance, and hope simply as a small child, to be adopted again, and pray to Jesus for mercy and improvement.

Fourth: that you must be faithful to your masters and mistresses and obedient to your master servants and overseers: and that you do all your work with love and quickness as has been proper for you; because you must know that Christ puts every one of His children, in his plan, because the Lord has made everything Himself, king, lord, servant and slave. And everyone must remain, so long as we live in the world, in the place, that God has put him in, and be with God's wise council satisfied: because the Lord has made death as the punishment of all people, and the children of God also must die, but it is nothing else as a sleep for them, and go with happiness with the body to the grave, and with the soul above with the Saviour. Besides this God has punished the first negroes for their own sins, and their entire generation, that they will be slaves, and the soul blessings does not make you free in the body, but takes away all the evil thoughts, anger, laziness, unfaithfulness, and all what makes you sad to be a slave; because our Lord Jesus, so long as he was in the world; he gave himself even to be a servant, and was an artisan up to one or two year before he went away from the world, and in God's word we are shown as an example for all the servants. I myself am free born, but my Saviour taught me to work days and nights for others with pleasure.

Fifth: that you must always think of the other negroes or savages, who have been called to Jesus by the brothers in so many places; because we have begun here first with you, and so many of the brothers and sisters are here in this work for you, and with prayer for you. You who were the first, I hope will not become the last. The Lord bless you all and give, that I will go before His throne with happiness, and that each one with me and Martinus may sing: The soul of Christ has blessed me, His spirit has made my heart cheerful, His body deeply wounded for us, made our soul and body healthy; so as we have sung so often here on St. Thomas. Fare well!

Written on St Thomas, 15 February 1739. The count Lodewijk.

1.1.2 Der erweckten Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an Jhro Majest. den König in Dännemarck.

On the return journey, Zinzendorf brought two letters with him to Europe, one from the male slaves for the Danish king and one from the female slave Marotta, baptised Magdalena, for the Danish queen. The second letter (in 1.1.3) is in Marotta's African language, accompanied by a Negerhollands translation. Both letters - the first diplomatic correspondence in a creole language - were also printed in the Büdingische Sammlung (Zinzendorf 1742). Especially in the letter by the male slaves, the language

clearly is still influenced by Dutch, which shows the difficulties in the beginning of the employment of this spoken language as a written language.

XI.

Der erweckten Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an Ihro Majest. den Koenig in Daen-nemarck55.

An. 1739.

Translation

The awakened negroes in St. Thomas write to their Majesty the king of Denmark.

Merciful Sir King!

Now it is our hope his majesty the king will give the order that we may continue to learn about the Lord Jesus. So far we have stood as firm as pleases God the Lord, although we are very much oppressed by all who come to beat and hew us when we learn about the Saviour, and who burn the books, and call baptism a baptism for dogs and call the brethren beasts, and say that negroes should not become blessed, and that a baptised negro is fire-wood in hell. And they have put our brethren, especially Reverend Martin, whom God had given to us already, and who has remained of 20 brethren, (who have died) with his brother, for over three months in the fort, and want to ban them from the land. All now called upon his majesty, and say you have forbidden that the Negroes learn to know the Saviour and that you will chase away Reverend Martin. But we do not believe this, and we have sent two brethren to ask you, Jens Rasmus and Andries, a servant of the negro community, and implore you. Let us learn to know the Lord, and remain with the brethren's church because we want to go with them to the Saviour. We want to be obedient to our masters in everything and only

send our soul to heaven with Lord Jesus. Because we have robbed our lord, run maroon, went to Porto Rico, have been naughty and deceived our masters with our daily rations. And now this is all different with us, as the masters know well. Many negroes have got their hands and feet cut off because of the evil. We will gladly lay our heads for the community under the axe, for the Lord Jesus, if our masters will kill us, like they say. God bless our most merciful king a thousand times.

Written in St. Thomas, the 15th February, 1739.

On behalf of over 650 black pupils of Jesus Christ, whom are taught by Reverend Martin, especially of all those he has baptised already, Pieter, Mingo, Andries, Abraham, Madlena, Rebecca (mulatto woman), Anna Maria.

1.1.3 Der Ältestin der Gemeine der Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an die Königin von Dännemarck.

XII.

Der Aeltestin der Gemeine der Negros in St. Thomas Schreiben an die Koenigin von Daenemarck.

An. 1739.69

Ne acadda.

1Cabe my le ad ga {adga} Tome {Tomas} minge bruhu {bruku} 2 mau, mi wago voltomé {votto mé}. Gewoma {Gew oma} 3 ....................................... dihé 4 dihé {diké}, na mangi Bruhu {brúku} Ajuba malle na ma do 5 wi tu ma gagni na mi, {mu} quassi nangi {mangi} netto 6 dy {dij} a Wo Du Gowo maja powo Dn. {Du.} Poppo 7 leosi, Mia meyi {meijji} diké bowo Dn {du} mille dikbe 8 migeé Meacadda nadak be no vo Dn {Du} Mau70 9 e na dak bena Anibà dassi sala Martinus {Martinús} na 10 doclio {doch} {[-d]} na mi {mí} nassé na mi angé vo Dn. {Du.} na 11 cossi de tami, denikó {denikò} Do Batroe {Batröe} Mau {Man[-u]} sé {Sé} Mau 12 mé agnisà ne a cadda. 13 Minzu {Minzù} Gnonù 14 en ho ma {ma[-a]} poppo! 15 Damma {Damma}.71

Ubersetzung ins Cariolische.72

Translation

Great Queen.

At the time I lived in Poppo in Africa I served Lord Mau and when I came to the whites' land, I did not very much want to serve the Lord. I did not have a reason to serve the Lord; I am sad in my heart that Negroe women cannot serve the Lord Jesus in St. Thomas. The Whites do not want to serve the Lord. Let it be as they want, but if the poor black brethren and sisters want to serve the Lord Jesus, they have to do as if they are maroon people. If it pleases the Queen, you should pray to the Lord Jesus for us, and implore also A Niba (the King) to let Reverend Martin preach the Lord's word and baptise us Negroes, in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. May the Lord protect them and bless them, son and daughter and the whole family, and I will pray to the Lord Jesus for them. On behalf of two hundred and fifty Negro women, who love the Lord Jesus, written by Marotta, now Madlena of Poppo from Africa

1.2 The slave letters (1737-1767)

The earliest written documentation of the slaves' language is formed by letters. Since 1736, the missionaries had been teaching the slaves to read and some of them also to write, and indeed, the slaves soon began writing letters, the first one dating from January 11, 1737. A large amount of information about this stage of Negerhollands can be found in Stein's works (especially in those from 1984, 1985a, 1989 and 1991). On the whole, there are about 150 letters in the Herrnhut Archives; they were written between 1737 and 1768. These letters are mostly in Negerhollands, but one part was also in Dutch. In this chapter, we will present a selection of letters in diachronical order; Dutch letters will not be included here.

There is some difficulty in discovering the sentence boundaries. The comma sometimes seems to have the function of period, but may also be absent. When it is not clear what it does, and it therefore remains unclear to which (part of) sentence another sentence belongs, we treated it in the free translation as an independent sentence, i.e. between periods.

1.2.1 The first letter in Negerhollands

At the time the first letters were written, Negerhollands was not yet a ‘written language’. Therefore, the earliest letters were based on Dutch. Such a letter should represent the first document of our selection: Peter's letter to Friedrich Martin of 21 and 24 January 1738. In this letter, Dutch and Negerhollands structures alternate. On the one hand, it shows Peter's effort to write Dutch, and on the other, his difficulties with this language and the ensuing Creole influences. When one accepts the possibility of linguistic blending, this text may be an example of it (cf. Stein (1989) for the same letter). The letter is dated in German by someone else, and Friedrich Martin has added a comment in German in the right margin, at 90° to the text.

teure brider hier ist daß erste brieflein

waß broeder Petris von seiner bande mich bericht

er hats auch selbst geschrieben93

Translation

To the dear brethren Martin, the congregation and all the brethren. One Tuesday evening the four brethren and the sisters and the old man Saca, we knelt together and prayed to the Lord and praised the Lord, and Friday evening we prayed again to the Lord and we ate together and we thanked the Lord. I asked my brother how his heart fared, and he said his heart now belongs to the word of the Lord. I asked Andrijs how his heart was and he said his heart feels the happiness of the love of the Lord, but his wife can sometimes make her heart so angry, which is why she is disobedient. Johannes says he found his heart so well, but not very much. Pitrus.

From January 21 and 24, 1738

Dear brethren, here is the first small letter which Peter sent to me from his group. Also, he has written it himself.

1.2.2 The early 1740s.

The early letters indicate that Zinzendorf's letter stimulated further writing in Negerhollands. During the subsequent years more letters followed, of which especially the one from 1741 is important. Among them the first slave letters in Negerhollands are encountered, and Dutch was no longer used exclusively. Again, the initiative for this apparently did not come from the slaves but from the missionaries. One must keep in mind that not all slaves could write; indeed, during the first years only two of them could, Peter and Domingo Gesoe. As there are more senders of letters than different types of hand-writing, the letters were apparently dictated. This is supported by the fact that often several letters appear after each other on the same sheet of paper. Mostly they were small notes, from which one can conclude that paper was not available in abundance. Furthermore, Peter and Domingo mainly wrote Dutch letters; missionary Löhans, on the other hand, wrote almost exclusively in Negerhollands. Here we included a letter from Löhans. The contents of these letters does not display much variation; they represent declarations of faith with only very scanty reference to daily life.

S. Thomas den 1. feber 1740

Translation

Greetings to all sisters. I was a poor and lost person. Now I came and found the Saviour's blood. The blood came and cleansed my heart. I waited so long time before hearing the Lord's word. Without asking for it. But then I came to feel the Saviour's strength, in my heart, then I cried to him for forgiveness. And so I find the mercy has come over me. I now cannot thank the Saviour enough because his blood cleansed my heart. I believe firmly in the Saviour. He hung on the cross for me poor sinner. Lenathge of Hans Claß.

St. Thomas, February the first, 1740

1.2.3 Letters to Bethlehem (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)

From the following years only very few and then almost exclusively Dutch letters have been preserved. Starting in 1752 and 1753 we find a larger number of letters again. They are predominantly written in Negerhollands, their size has increased, and the texts are longer. Furthermore, a new addressee appears: the Indian congregation in North America (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania). From the language in the letters one senses increasing experience with the Negerhollands language, the number of Dutch interferences is low, and in their place new structures are employed (see several publications of Stein, for instance Stein forthcoming b).

The following letter is by Domingo Gesoe to the Indian congregation. Domingo Gesoe, one of the two writers from the early years, disposed of a good knowledge of Dutch and always wrote his own letters in this language, while for others he also wrote in Negerhollands. This letter is the only one known to us which he wrote in Negerhollands himself. Apparently, for him the addressee plays a role in this linguistic choice.