trend of thought, the precarious religious situation, the very bad state of public finance, the political evolution and events in other European countries were some of the causes and conditions which gave rise to this demand. Under the leadership of Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, at that time a professor of jurisprudence at Leyden and in later years three times Prime Minister, a body of nine members of the Second Chamber drew up a definite proposal for a moderate liberal-democratic revision which obtained the King's approval in 1848. Under the provisions of this Constitution full ministerial responsibility was introduced. The King, whose position became inviolable, could henceforth legally do no wrong. The executive power, i.e., the right of dissolving the Chamber, the administration of the overseas possessions, the conduct of foreign affairs, etc., was left in his hands. He shared the legislative power with the States General whose competency and authority were largely increased. The Second Chamber was given the right of initiative, amendment and investigation. It acquired full control over the now annual budgets. Its members were elected by all citizens of full age paying a certain sum to direct taxation. The First Chamber was elected by the Provincial Estates. Freedom of assembly, liberty of the press as well as freedom of worship to all denominations were guaranteed. The provincial and municipal administration was made dependent on the direct popular vote. Primary education in the public school came under State control; private (denominational) schools were not interfered with. From 1848 on the Netherlands Kingdom was a constitutional monarchy patterned on an ever widening democratic foundation. Henceforth political party life crystalized around the liberal-secular, the conservative, the Protestant and Catholic, and (in later years) the rising socialist trends of thought. The main political issues which dominated the subsequent years were the correct
interpretation of the constitutional relationship between the Crown, the Ministers and the States-General; the extension of the franchise; the State-control of public or private, secular or confessional education; tax reform; social legislation; the military service and the colonial policy. These found their expression in the various attending organic laws from 1848 on as well as in the constitutional revision of 1887, when the First Chamber became limited to a membership of 50 and the Second Chamber to 100 members; in the electoral law of 1896 containing an additional extension of the franchise and in the important constitutional revisions of 1917 and 1922.
These last revisions were essentially in conformity with the changes in the social, economic, and political structures of the Netherlands, which, in the course of fifty years had developed into a modern, well-organized industrial and agricultural state with high cultural standards and a politically, fully emancipated population, dominated by strong, though divergent, principles. The revision of 1917 had already been announced in 1913 in a speech from the throne but was in 1914 interrupted by the outbreak of the first World War. Under this arrangement universal active and passive (compulsory) suffrage was granted, except for some restrictions, to all male persons of not less than 23 years on a basis of proportional representation. Female suffrage was introduced in 1922. At the same time the long-standing burning educational question was settled. Henceforth public-secular and private-denominational education were given equal rights and duties. This revision was completed and perfected by the general revision of
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