Schrijven is zilver, spreken is goud

Oratuur, auratuur en literatuur van de Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba

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Summary

Every writer presenting a survey of the literature of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, has struggled with the question what exactly comprises Antillean literature. For this reason it is necessary to present a historical survey of the different views held on this subject at various points in time. Not until the 1930's were the first introductions published on (parts of) the literature of the six islands, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, situated ‘below the wind’, off the coast of South America, and Saba, St. Eustatius and St. Maarten which are a small part of the northern Caribbean archipelago. The total area of these islands is some 1000 square kilometres, and the population numbers about three hundred thousand. Though Dutch is the official language, Papiamento is normally spoken on the A.B.C. islands and English on the S.S.S. islands.

The oral tradition is the oldest, however, nothing has been handed down from the period ‘before the letters’. Songs and the well-known Anancy tales date back to the days of colonisation and the import of African slaves. Literature dates from colonial nineteenth century and flourished at the end of that century, but not until the twentieth century and particularly after World War II did it really get under way uninterruptedly. The past decades saw a growth in the production of what was considered literature.

Cola Debrot, more than anyone else can be held responsible for the current image of what comprises Antillean literature. He discussed it comprehensively and systematically in noumerous oral and written expositions. To this day many writers make use of his schemata.

Nowadays only work by Antillean-born writers who primarily explore the ‘native’ character is considered Antillean literature. These authors have written in Dutch, Spanish, Papiamento and English. Poetry emerged at an early date; prose as a literary form came at a later date. Theatre dates from the nineteenth century. However, the local drama literature emerged at a relatively late date.

How was Antillean literature perceived in the course of years? In the following six chronologically arranged chapters this study offers a historical survey of the institutes that occupied themselves in an organised, recognizable and accepted manner with work by Antillean authors. How did the production, the promotion, distribution and reception take place and what was eventually indicated as belonging to the indigenous Antillean literary domain?

Departing from the description of the language situation with the help of material gathered from lemmata in encyclopedia, anthologies and introductary articles this study tries to give an answer on what the members of the literary community considered to be Antillean literature. How often were certain authors and their work referred to? How and why was this done? What were the views expressed in the material obtained on the nature and function of Antillean literature? The material has mainly been sought and found in published documents like newspapers, magazines, but also in archives.

Though the oral tradition preceded written forms it is not known what it sounded like nor what it comprised of owing to the lack of written documents. We know that it was in the two vernaculars Papiamento and English, never in elitist Spanish or Dutch. Work and leisure songs were handed down. They have been documented since the turn of the century. Only during the last decades have they been systematically and professionally studied. Reconstructing who produced these oral products, who rendered them and how they were used by the slaves to come to terms with their humiliating position have proven a laborious task at best. The original forms disappeared in the cours eof this century and were replaced by new ones. The oral tradition is still alive and still exercises a strong influence on literature.

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Colonial literature was written by migratory workers and colonists in English, Spanish and Dutch. This literature consisted mainly of songs for special occasions which offer a view of the affairs which occupied the lives of the elite in those days. A remarkable fact at the beginning of the nineteenth century was the existance of a flourishing French language theatre life. Though reading was not generally practised in the slave society there were exceptions, people who assembled in reading associations or who founded private libraries. The oldest form of colonial literature was in the European tradition and closely followed the tradition brought back from the mother countries by the migratory workers and the colonists.

After emancipation in 1863 a whole new people had to be civilised, a task in which literature was considered of utmost importance. They learned to read by means of a newspaper published in the native language. Magazines and society life bloomed as never before. Journalism and literature entered a strong alliance. The colonial white elite read, joined societies where writing was done with great verve and they frequented the theatre. Private education was at a high level and enjoyed international renown. The lower classes received free education in Papiamento whenever possible.

Publisher-bookseller-librarian A. Bethencourt e Hijos, Teatro Naar, Lelia Capriles' literary salon and Society ‘De Gezelligheid’ were centres of cultural life. The ambiance was South American, because the elite gravitated towards the region for its culture, no longer towards the European mother country.

The distressed colony was neglected after the attention showered on it by the Merchant-King, William I, at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Later Ministries of Colonies paid far more attention to the Orient than to the colonies in the West Indies, and more to Suriname, the sugar-colony, than to the tiny, arid, poverty-stricken islands.

However, at the turn of the century the ethical movement gained the upper hand. They wanted to turn the colony where ‘shamefully enough’ Dutch was hardly spoken, into a tropical Holland. ‘Hollandisation’ was made mandatory, especially through the ‘Algemeen Nederlands Verbond’. This process was reinforced by the establishment of the oil refinaries, resulting in a rapid economic development, especially on the island of Curaçao. But the increased prosperity did not necessarily constitute a richer cultural life.

The Roman Catholic mission attempted to hold on to the traditional values by means of publishing a Papiamento serial story, however to no avail. The Dutch-speaking section of the colony demonstrated an increasingly irreconcilable attitude towards the native language. This led to a seperation of spirits which in turn resulted in the establishment of Dutch style bookstores, theatre companies, educational systems and libraries. Gradually the Antilleans ran the risk of becoming strangers on their own islands. Initially this ‘Hollandisation’ did not lead to the production of a Dutch language literature of significance. ‘Mijn zuster de negerin’ [My sister the negress], a novel by Cola Debrot was considered of importance in the mother country only.

The outbreak of World War II deprived the Hollandisation of its sustaining roots. Dutch maintained its dominant role during and after the war but due to the automation process in the oil industry and the consequent repatriation of a large number of the Dutch poulation. Papiamento regained ground, also in literature. The ‘Papiamento-movement’ emerged in a subcircuit but rapidly advanced into the mainstream. In this era magazines defined the image of Antillean literature, playing the part of catalysors. The Dutch foundation, Sticusa and its Antillean counterparts had an important part in giving direction to cultural life. Papiamento became the dominant language in politics, theatre, radio, television and of the new forms in the

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oral tradition as manifested in popular songs and carnival calypsos. In education, however, the monopoly of the Dutch language persisted.

For the first time ever Antillean literature obtained some prominence in the Netherlands where Cola Debrot, Tip Marugg, Boeli van Leeuwen and Frank Martinus Arion were read in a limited circle, being considered exotic authors.

The economic recession, the inequity in the division of prosperity and the disproportionate influence of foreigners on life in Curaçao caused the great revolt of May 30, 1969, which in turn would lead to a cultural revolution.

Antilleans turned to Papiamento for once and for all; the native language surpassed Dutch completely in public life. Rapid political independence was foreseen and both the Dutch and the Antilleans acted in accordance with this assumption. Identity and authenticity became keywords.

The first publishing-houses were established, literary critique intensified and a flourishing theatre-life sounded the call for black consciousness, firmly rooted in Africa. Libraries became aware of their functions as keepers of the local culture and organised special collecions of ‘Antillana’. The main focus of literature in its various forms was guiding the new consciousness. In depth studies of the past went hand in hand with attention to the literary tradition. What constituted Antillean literature was clearly defined.

In this era literary life grew in impportance on all six islands. In 1986 Aruba gained its special status within the Kingdom of the Netehrlands which had a special literary dimension. The oral tradition gained new life on the Windward Islands and blossomed into a cultural life full of vitality with a well-equipped library, a critical theatre-life and a publishing-house which produced a number of important works.

At present it seems that the Antilles intend to use their political right to self-determination to remain parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; this may result in the islands drifting apart, thus loosing contact with each other, whereas the Dutch presence will be strengthened. This development will probably alter the attitude of the islands towards the mother country and its language. At present some eighty thousand Antilleans and Arubans, about 25% of the total population, have settled in the Netherlands. If there should come a new wave of ‘Hollandisation’ one could learn from the past how not to act. Multi-culturality and consequently multi-lingualism are normal phenomena in practically every modern nation. Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, however, may pride themselves on an experience in this field which goes back four centuries. At first view Antillean literature is of immense importance because it has represented co-existence, mutual respect and self-evident creolization as no oher medium has, and it will continue to do so, in the future.

[translation Madonna Stephens]